Numismatic Glossary
A Helpful Guide to the Language of Coins
If you’ve ever come across a term in a coin listing, grading report, or collector conversation and weren’t quite sure what it meant, you’re in the right place.
This glossary was created to help you understand the language of numismatics, from the basics of coin anatomy to the finer points of grading, surface features, errors, visual appeal and numismatic photography. Whether you're a collector, dealer, or simply curious, this reference is here to make coin terminology more accessible and valuable.
You’ll find clear, concise definitions for terms related to:
Coin types, minting, and historical references
Toning, patina, and luster — and what they mean visually
Grading standards, strike quality, and surface conditions
Common mint errors and collectible varieties
Coin photography terms that explain how coins are lit and captured
All terms are explained in plain language, with intermediate collectors in mind. And if you’re interested in how coins photograph — and how lighting affects what you see — you’ll find those insights here, too.
Use this glossary as a learning tool, a quick reference, or just a way to deepen your appreciation of the coins you collect and study.
A
Adjustment Marks – Shallow pre-strike filing lines used to reduce a planchet’s weight. Found on early silver and gold coins, often mistaken for scratches.
Album Toning – Peripheral or target-like toning that develops from long-term storage in cardboard coin albums. Often appears as concentric rings of color and can enhance a coin’s eye appeal if attractive.
Alloy – A blend of metals used to make a coin, such as copper-nickel or silver-copper. Affects color, hardness, and tone.
Ancient Coin – A coin struck before roughly 500 CE, often from Greek, Roman, or Persian civilizations. Typically hand-struck with natural patina.
Angle of Incidence – The angle at which light strikes a coin’s surface. In coin photography, adjusting the angle of incidence (light angle) affects what details are highlighted or shadowed on the coin’s design. A shallow lighting angle (raking light) emphasizes texture and relief, while a steep angle reduces shadows and glare.
Annealing – The heating process that softens coin blanks (planchets) before striking. Essential for proper metal flow and full design transfer.
Artificial Toning – Chemically or artificially applied coloration, often used to simulate natural toning. Usually detectable under magnification.
Assay – A test to determine metal content and purity. Common in bullion production and historical minting.
Attribution – Identification of a coin’s variety, mint, or historical context using catalogs or references like RIC, VAM, or Krause.
Aureus – A high-purity Roman gold coin used during the Republic and Empire. Predecessor to the solidus.
Axial Lighting – A specialized coin photography technique where light is directed along the same axis as the camera lens (via a 45° glass reflector) to illuminate the coin evenly. Axial lighting eliminates most shadows and reflections, producing uniform light across the coin’s surface for capturing features like cameo contrast.
B
Bag Marks – Small nicks or contact marks on a coin caused by coins bumping against each other in mint bags. Bag marks (also called contact marks) are often seen on large silver coins (e.g., Morgan dollars) and can affect a coin’s surface preservation and eye appeal.
Bar – A rectangular form of bullion, usually gold or silver, not legal tender but sometimes marked with weight and purity.
Base Metal – Non-precious metals like copper, nickel, or zinc used in modern coinage.
Beading – Small decorative dots along a coin’s rim. Used to frame the design and deter clipping.
Bimetallic Coin – A coin with two different metals, typically one in the center and one forming the outer ring.
Black Patina – An extremely dark patina on a coin’s surface (patinas can range from green to almost black in color. Black patina often forms on ancient copper or bronze coins from certain burial conditions (such as desert soils) or on silver coins from silver sulfide tarnish, and it is usually a stable, desirable oxidation layer if uniform.
Blank (Planchet) – A round metal disc prepared for coinage. Receives the design when struck by dies.
Bloom (Mint Bloom) – Another term for original mint luster. Indicates uncirculated surfaces.
Bronze Disease – Active corrosion on copper-alloy coins. Appears as powdery green spots and requires conservation.
Brown (BN) – Grading color designation for copper coins that have fully toned from red to brown.
C
Cabinet Friction – Minor wear on high points from storage in wooden drawers. Early collectors stored coins in wooden cabinets, and as drawers were opened or coins were lightly wiped, a faint rub (cabinet friction) could occur on the obverse or other high-relief areas, leaving light tell-tale marks but not heavy wear.
Cameo – A frosted relief design that contrasts with mirrored fields. Highly desirable on proof coins.
Cartwheel Effect – A characteristic rotational sparkle of a coin’s luster visible when the coin is tilted under light. Caused by light reflecting off radial die flow lines, original mint luster will spin around like the spokes of a cartwheel. A strong cartwheel effect indicates an uncirculated coin with fresh, lustrous surfaces, whereas cleaning or wear can dull this effect.
Certified Coin – A coin graded and encapsulated by a third-party grading company like PCGS or NGC.
Centration Hole – A small, often circular indentation found at the center of some ancient or medieval coins, usually on the obverse. Centration holes were used as guide marks to align the dies during striking, especially in ancient Greek and early Islamic coinage. They were typically created with a punch prior to or during die setup. These holes are not damage or wear, but intentional features of the minting process. While they may detract from visual symmetry in modern collecting standards, they are historically significant and can even aid in authenticating ancient coins.
Chop Mark – A countermark added by merchants (usually in Asia) to verify the coin’s authenticity and weight.
Clad Coinage – Coins made of layered metals, such as U.S. dimes and quarters post-1965 (copper core with nickel coating).
Cleaning (Improper) – Removal of dirt or tarnish in a way that damages the surface. Creates hairlines and reduces value.
Clip / Clipped Planchet – An error coin with a portion of the blank missing due to miscutting.
Coin – A piece of metal, authorized by a government, with a design and denomination for use as money.
Coin Alignment – The typical alignment where obverse and reverse are right-side-up relative to each other. Opposite of medal alignment.
Coin Photography – The specialized art of lighting and photographing coins to highlight luster, toning, and detail. Includes axial, diffuse, and raking lighting methods.
Commemorative Coin – A coin issued to mark a special event or person, often with limited mintage.
Contact Marks – Minor abrasions from handling or transport. Distinct from wear or damage.
Copper Spot – Reddish discoloration on gold coins due to copper impurities. Can be distracting or tone-enhancing.
Counterfeit – An unauthorized copy made to deceive collectors or circulate as genuine currency.
Countermark – A secondary mark added after minting, often for revaluation or validation.
Cud – A raised lump on a coin caused by a die break at the edge.
From Definition to Detail
When you read about cartwheel luster, cameo contrast, or desert patina, you know the terms. But a high-quality photograph lets you see them — clearly, accurately, and true to the coin’s character.
At Coin Photography Studio, we combine technical skill and numismatic knowledge to make every glossary term a visual reality.
D
Debasement – The reduction of precious metal content in coins, typically done by governments in periods of inflation.
Deep Mirror Prooflike (DMPL) – A business-strike coin with deeply mirrored fields, usually with cameo contrast. Common in early Morgan dollars.
Denarius – A silver Roman coin used widely in the Republic and Empire. Predecessor to the penny.
Desert Patina – A sandy, light-brown patina found on ancient bronze coins discovered in arid regions. Desert patina occurs when wind-blown sand and dust chemically adhere to a coin’s existing patina, sometimes highlighting details. True desert patina is typically a pale brown layer over green or brown underlying patina and is appreciated for the coin’s historic “desert find” appearance.
Die – A hardened metal stamp used to impress a coin design onto a planchet.
Die Clash – A mint error where dies strike each other without a planchet, leaving ghost images on future strikes.
Die Crack – A raised line caused by a fracture in the die.
Die Deterioration – Worn or fatigued dies produce weak or blurry coin details.
Die State – The condition of the die at the time a coin was struck, from early sharpness to late-stage wear.
Diffuse Lighting – Using a softened, scattered light source to illuminate a coin, which minimizes harsh reflections and shadows. In practice, diffused lighting (for example, light passed through a diffuser or softbox) reduces glare and helps reveal a coin’s true colors. This technique is especially useful for toned coins or proof coins, though it can make cartwheel luster less apparent.
Doubled Die – A coin struck from a die that shows design elements in duplicate, caused by a misaligned hubbing process.
Drachma – An ancient Greek silver coin, precursor to the Roman denarius.
Dull Luster – A lackluster or subdued sheen on a coin’s surface, indicating impaired original luster. Often seen on lower-grade uncirculated coins (e.g., MS-60 to MS-62) or coins that have been lightly circulated or cleaned, dull luster means the coin’s shine is weak or muted. This can result from oxidation, improper cleaning, or simply a weak mint strike that did not produce vibrant luster.
E
Edge – The outer border of a coin, between the obverse and reverse. May be plain, reeded, lettered, or decorated. Edge designs can help deter counterfeiting and are important for attribution.
Electrum – A naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver used in some of the earliest coins, particularly from ancient Lydia and Greece
Encapsulated Coin – A coin housed in a protective plastic holder by a grading service.
Engraver – The artist who creates the coin’s design and/or dies.
Environmental Damage – Corrosion or toning caused by exposure to soil, moisture, or chemicals.
EPL (Exceptional Prooflike) – A descriptive term (not always a formal grade) for coins with highly reflective surfaces approaching prooflike or deep mirror prooflike quality.
Error Coin – A coin with a minting mistake, such as a double strike, misalignment, or clipped planchet.
Exergue – The lower portion of a coin’s design, often separated by a line and containing a date or inscription.
Exonumia – Numismatic items that aren’t coins or paper money, such as tokens, medals, and commemorative pieces.
Eye Appeal – A subjective term for the overall visual attractiveness of a coin. Eye appeal encompasses a coin’s luster, color/toning, strike sharpness, and surface preservation. Coins with superior eye appeal (bright luster, pleasing toning, minimal marks) are often valued higher. In grading, eye appeal can add to or detract from a coin’s technical grade.
F
Field – The flat, background area of a coin surrounding the design. Clean fields are critical for eye appeal and high grades.
Fiat Coinage – Coins with value determined by government decree, not backed by precious metal.
Finish – The surface texture of a coin (e.g., proof, matte, satin, business). Finish affects luster and photographic reflectivity.
Flan – A term (used especially in British and ancient coin contexts) for a coin blank or planchet. It refers to the piece of metal, typically a disk, before it has been struck with a coin’s design. (For example, ancient coins were struck on hand-made flans, which often results in irregular shapes or thicknesses.)
Flow Lines – Microscopic lines caused by metal movement during striking; they produce mint luster.
Frosted Devices – Raised design elements that appear matte or textured, contrasting with mirror fields. Especially desirable in proofs.
Fugio Cent – The first official U.S. coin, minted in 1787, designed by Benjamin Franklin. Famous for its sundial and “Mind Your Business” motto.
Full Bands / Full Steps / Full Torch – Strike designations indicating fully detailed design elements in key areas of certain coin types.
Fouree (or fourrée) - A term, derived from the French word meaning "stuffed", used in numismatics to describe a counterfeit coin. It consists of a base metal core, usually copper alloy, that is plated with a thin layer of a precious metal like silver or gold to resemble a solid coin of higher value. These were typically created by ancient counterfeiters seeking to deceive by passing off base metal coins as genuine
Full Strike – A coin strike that has brought up all the design details fully and sharply. A full strike means the highest points of the design are well-defined, as intended by the engraver. Coins described as “full strike” show no weakness in detail due to striking pressure – for instance, all stars, hair strands, or device details are clear. (By contrast, see Weak Strike.)
G
Gallery Minting – A term used to describe ancient or handmade methods of coin production, as opposed to modern machine striking.
Gilded coins – Coins, typically made of silver, that have a thin layer of gold applied to their surface. This process, called gilding, enhances the coin's appearance by giving it a golden luster and can also offer protection against tarnishing.
Grade – A numerical or adjectival assessment of a coin’s condition, often on the Sheldon 1–70 scale.
Grading Service – A third-party company (e.g., PCGS, NGC) that authenticates and assigns grades to coins.
Green Patina – The most common patina on ancient bronze and copper coins, characterized by a green coloration. This patina is a thin layer of copper corrosion products (such as copper oxides or acetates) that forms over centuries. Green patina can range from nearly black-green to bright verdigris and is often stable and desirable, protecting the coin and adding antiqued eye appeal.
Greysheet (CDN) – A pricing guide showing wholesale values for U.S. coins, used by dealers and collectors.
Gutter – The groove between a coin’s rim and main design. In ancient coins, a guttered flan may result from uneven striking or planchet preparation.
H
Hairlines – Tiny, fine scratches on a coin’s surface, usually from cleaning, polishing, or improper wiping. Hairlines are often most visible in a coin’s fields and can diminish luster by scattering light. While shallow, they can negatively affect a coin’s grade and value, as they indicate the coin has been handled or cleaned rather than left with original surfaces.
Hammered Coin – A coin struck manually using a hammer and anvil; common before the 17th century.
Hardness – A metal's resistance to deformation. Softer metals show marks more easily, harder ones strike with less detail.
High Relief – A coin design where elements stand prominently above the fields. Visually striking but harder to strike cleanly.
Holed Coin – A coin with a hole deliberately made for suspension or attachment. Lowers collector value unless historically significant.
Holder (Slab) – A protective case used by grading services to encapsulate and label certified coins.
Hub – A steel punch that impresses a coin design into dies during the die creation process.
Hoard – A group of coins discovered together, often hidden or buried. Famous hoards affect market values and collector interest.
I
Impaired Proof – A proof coin that has been circulated or damaged, losing its original finish.
Incuse Design – A design sunk into the surface of the coin rather than raised above it.
Ingot – A rectangular bar of bullion, often stamped with purity and weight. Not legal tender.
Inscription – Any text appearing on a coin. Includes legends, mottos, and denomination labels.
Intrinsic Value – The raw metal value of a coin, based on its weight and metal content. Differs from numismatic or collectible value, which includes rarity, demand, and condition.
Iridescent Toning – A vibrant, rainbow-like toning that shifts in color depending on lighting and angle. Highly desirable for both eye appeal and photography, as it adds visual depth.
J
Judgment Grade – An unofficial grade used by dealers when a coin sits between two standard grades.
K
Key Date – The rarest or most valuable date in a coin series, often needed to complete a set.
Krause Number (KM#) – “K" or "KM" number refers to the numbering system used in the Standard Catalog of World Coins, published by Krause Publications. The "KM" stands for Krause-Mishler, referencing the authors, Chester L. Krause and Clifford Mishler. This system assigns unique numbers to different types of coins, making it easier to identify and catalog world coin
L
Lamination Flaw – A planchet flaw where a portion of the metal splits or peels away from the coin’s surface due to impurities or improper bonding in the metal. A lamination can appear as a flake or void on the coin after striking. It is an mint-made error/defect, not post-mint damage, and is sometimes collected as an interesting flaw if it’s prominent.
Legend – The outer inscription around the edge of a coin, often including the issuing authority or motto.
Luster – The brilliant, reflective sheen of a coin’s surface caused by light reflecting off microscopic die flow lines and metal flow patterns. Original mint luster (or “mint bloom”) has a frosty or satiny shine on uncirculated coins, often producing a cartwheel effect. Luster is a key indicator of a coin’s state of preservation – it appears radiant on unworn coins and becomes dull or absent on coins that have circulated or been cleaned.
Lettered Edge – A coin edge bearing text instead of reeding or being plain. Used to deter clipping.
M
Matte Proof – A proof coin with a granular, non-reflective finish. Common in early 20th-century issues.
Medal Alignment – An alignment where the obverse and reverse are in the same orientation (unlike most U.S. coins).
Medallion (Medal) – A coin-like object without face value, often issued for commemorative or artistic purposes.
Mint Bloom – Original luster seen on freshly struck coins. Loss of bloom usually indicates wear or cleaning.
Mint Error – A coin struck with a production mistake, often collectible if dramatic or rare.
Mint Mark – A letter or symbol indicating the mint of origin (e.g., D = Denver, S = San Francisco).
Mint Set – An annual set of uncirculated coins sold by the mint, often in sealed packaging.
Mint State (MS) – Grading term for uncirculated coins. Ranges from MS60 (bagmarked) to MS70 (flawless).
Mintage – The total number of coins produced of a particular type, date, and mint.
Mottled Toning – Uneven or patchy toning on a coin’s surface, which may be natural or storage-induced.
Protecting More Than Value
Knowing the difference between prooflike and mint state can guide your collecting — but professional photography preserves that difference forever.
Our images document your coins with the precision collectors, dealers, and insurers rely on. Because when it comes to value, clarity matters.
N
Numismatics – The study and collecting of coins, tokens, paper money, and medals.
Numismatic Value – The collector value of a coin based on demand, rarity, and condition.
O
Obverse – The "heads" side of a coin, usually featuring the portrait or national emblem.
Off-Center Strike – A coin struck away from center. Errors can be minor or dramatic, and often collectible.
Orange Peel Texture – A pebbled or bumpy texture seen on some proof coin surfaces.
Original Surfaces – A coin that has never been cleaned or altered. Desirable for grading and resale.
P
Patina – A thin film or surface layer that forms on coins (especially ancient or old copper/bronze coins) due to long-term oxidationlearn.apmex.com. Patina often lends coins a green, brown, red, or even black coloration and can protect the metal underneath. On ancient coins, collectors value natural patina for its aesthetic and testament to age. (On modern coins, the analogous process is toning or tarnish.)
Pedigree – A coin’s documented ownership history. Famous pedigrees can enhance value.
Planchet – The blank piece of metal on which a coin design is impressed by the dies. Also called a “coin blank,” a planchet goes through the striking process to become a coin. Planchets can have flaws (such as laminations or cracks) that may appear on the struck coin.
Planchet Flaw – A defect or imperfection in the coin blank that shows up on the finished coin. It can be a void, crack, or lamination on the planchet. For example, a planchet flaw may appear as an irregular hole or missing metal on a struck coin, often the result of a piece of metal flaking off (a lamination peel)
Prooflike (PL) – A term for a business-strike coin with mirror-like reflective surfaces, resembling a proof coin. A Prooflike coin has unusually shiny fields (and often frosted devices) due to an early strike from polished dies. Grading companies add “PL” to Mint State grades when a coin has clear reflection. (If the mirrors are deeply reflective, a coin can merit the designation
DMPL – Deep Mirror Prooflike.)
Porosity – A term describing a pitted, porous, or granular coin surface, usually due to corrosion or a flawed planchet. Porosity is frequently seen on very old copper coins or ancient bronzes that have corroded over time, leaving tiny pits or rough texture. Heavily porous coins have low eye appeal and are sometimes called “rough” surfaces.
Porous Surface – A pitted texture from corrosion or casting. Common on ancient and lower-quality coins.
Privy Mark – A small symbol added to commemorate an event or distinguish a special issue.
Proof Coin – A specially struck coin with high detail and mirror fields, made for collectors.
Proof Set – A group of proof coins from a given year sold together in special packaging.
Q
Quarter Eagle – A U.S. gold coin worth $2.50, issued between 1796 and 1929.
Quality Adjustment – A pricing adjustment based on a coin’s eye appeal within a grade.
R
Rainbow Toning – multicolor toning pattern on a coin, where iridescent hues (blue, violet, orange, etc.) appear like a rainbow. Often seen on silver coins that have toned over time, rainbow toning is caused by thin-film oxide layers that refract light into colors. Attractive rainbow toning is highly sought after for the spectacular eye appeal it gives, and such coins often command premiums (vivid multicolored toning can increase a coin’s value
Raw Coin – A coin that is not encapsulated. Usually sold in a flip or holder.
Red (RD) – A copper coin showing 95% or more of its original red color.
Red-Brown (RB) – A copper coin showing between 5% and 95% original red.
Red Patina – A relatively rare patina seen on some ancient copper or bronze coins, featuring a red or reddish-orange coloration. Red patina is typically formed by copper(I) oxide (cuprous oxide) on the coin’s surfacecoinweek.com. It can range from bright red patches to a brick-red tone over the coin. Collectors find a stable red patina appealing, though it often occurs mixed with brown tones on the coin.
Reeded Edge – An edge with raised lines, used to deter shaving of precious metal.
Relief – The raised part of a coin's design above the field.
Repunched Mintmark (RPM) – A mintmark punched more than once in different positions. A popular variety.
Reverse – The "tails" side of a coin, often showing the denomination.
Rim – The raised outer edge that protects the design from wear.
Roll Tone – Toning caused by long-term storage in paper rolls.
S
Satin Finish – A smooth, matte-like coin surface with soft, diffused luster. Common in special U.S. Mint sets (e.g., 2005–2010). Less reflective than standard uncirculated coins.
Series – A group of coins with the same denomination and design, issued over a span of years. For example, the Lincoln cent series from 1909 to present.
Sheldon Scale – The 1–70 numerical grading scale used to assess a coin’s condition. Developed by Dr. William Sheldon in 1949 and adopted by major grading services.
Silver Clad – Coins composed of a core and outer layer of silver alloy, like U.S. 40% silver halves (1965–1970). Not pure silver, but still collectible.
Slab – A tamper-evident, sonically sealed holder used by grading companies to encapsulate and label certified coins. Protects the coin and verifies grade.
Snipe Bid – A last-second bid placed in an online auction to outbid competitors. Common in eBay-style numismatic auctions.
Solidus – A highly pure gold coin issued in the Later Roman and Byzantine Empires. Its weight of about 4.45 grams remained relatively constant for seven centuries.
Specimen (SP) – A coin struck with special handling, often for presentation, that falls between business and proof strike quality. Specimen coins typically show strong detail with some mirrored or satiny elements.
Split Grade – When a coin exhibits two different conditions on the obverse and reverse, such as MS63 obverse and MS64 reverse. Noted in descriptions but not typically on slab labels.
Strike (Quality) – The completeness and clarity of detail imparted when a coin is struck by the dies. Strike quality ranges from full strike (crisp, sharp details throughout) to weak strike (incomplete detail on some high points). A coin’s strike is influenced by die pressure, die state, and planchet quality. For instance, a strong strike will show fine design elements clearly, whereas a weakly struck coin may have flat or blurred details despite being unworn.
Surface Preservation – The condition of a coin’s surfaces in terms of marks, wear, and flaws – essentially how well the original surface is preserved. It considers the number and severity of any abrasions, bag marks, hairlines, or corrosion spots on the coin. High surface preservation (clean, unmarred fields and devices) is a crucial factor in a coin’s grade and eye appeal.
T
Toning – Natural color changes on a coin’s surface caused by long-term exposure to oxygen, sulfur, or other chemicals in the environment. Toning can appear as a thin layer of tarnish in various colors – golden, blue, brown, etc., and can be uniform or in patterns. Depending on its appearance, toning can enhance a coin’s eye appeal (e.g., beautiful rainbow toning) or detract from it (e.g., dark, splotchy toning). Synonyms: tarnish (usually for dull or dark toning) or patina (especially for older coins).
Trade Dollar – A silver coin minted by the U.S. between 1873–1885 for trade in Asia. Heavier than a standard dollar and frequently countermarked by Chinese merchants.
Type Coin – A coin selected to represent a design, denomination, or era, often for a type set. Type collecting focuses on diversity rather than date/mint variety.
Tyrant Collection – One of the most comprehensive privately held collections of coins spanning ancient to modern world coinage. Frequently referenced in high-end numismatic circles.
U
Ultra Cameo / Deep Cameo (UC/DCAM) – Grading designations for proof coins showing extremely strong contrast between frosted devices and mirrored fields. Highly prized for eye appeal.
Uncirculated – A coin that shows no signs of wear from circulation. Mint State (MS) grades 60–70 fall into this category, depending on marks, luster, and strike.
V
Variety – A coin that differs in design details (date style, mintmark placement, die characteristics) from others in its series. Examples include doubled dies, repunched dates, or small/large date variations.
VAM – A classification system for die varieties of Morgan and Peace dollars, developed by Van Allen and Mallis. VAM collectors seek specific die marriages, including dramatic features like clashed dies or doubled letters.
Verdigris – A green or bluish corrosion product found on copper or bronze coins. May be stable (as part of a patina) or active (damaging), depending on moisture and storage.
W
Weak Strike – A coin strike that did not impart full detail to the design, due to insufficient striking pressure or die issues. In a weak strike, certain high-relief elements of the design appear smooth or faint even if the coin is unworn. This contrasts with wear – on a weakly struck uncirculated coin the fields may be lustrous but some details look blurry or missing. Collectors note that some mint years or mints are known for chronic weak strikes, whereas a coin with a full strike shows all intended detail.
Whizzed Coin – A coin that has been mechanically polished or brushed to create false luster. Almost always lowers value and is detectable under magnification.
Wheel Mark – A fine, circular scratch or abrasion on a coin caused by a coin-counting machine. Wheel marks often reduce grade and desirability.
X
XRF Testing (X-ray Fluorescence) – A non-destructive analytical method used to determine the elemental composition of coins, especially for authentication or metal content analysis.
Y
Y# (Y-Number)
Y# are numbers assigned by R.S. YEOMAN in his Modern World Coins and Current World Coins of the World.
C# are numbers assigned by W.D. CRAIGH in his Coins of the World (1750-1850 period).
FR# = R. FRIEDBERG - Gold Coins of the World
P# = F. PRIDMORE - British Colonial Coinage
V# = W.H. VALENTINE - Modern Copper Coins of the Mohammedan States
K# = E. KANN - Illustrated Catalog of Chinese Coins
Yellow Toning – A golden or amber surface hue seen in silver coins, often the first stage of natural toning. Can be attractive if even and lustrous.
Z
Zerbe Proof – A special prooflike Morgan dollar allegedly struck for Farran Zerbe at the Philadelphia or San Francisco Mint. Not official proofs, but high-quality strikes made for presentation purposes.